Google C++ Style Guide

All header files should be self-contained. In other words, users and refactoring tools should not have to adhere to special conditions in order to include the header. Specifically, a header should have header guards, should include all other headers it needs, and should not require any particular symbols to be defined.

There are rare cases where a file is not meant to be self-contained, but instead is meant to be textually included at a specific point in the code. Examples are files that need to be included multiple times or platform-specific extensions that essentially are part of other headers. Such files should use the file extension .inc.

If a template or inline function is declared in a .h file, define it in that same file. The definitions of these constructs must be included into every .cc file that uses them, or the program may fail to link in some build configurations. Do not move these definitions to separate -inl.h files.

As an exception, a function template that is explicitly instantiated for all relevant sets of template arguments, or that is a private member of a class, may be defined in the only .cc file that instantiates the template.

To guarantee uniqueness, they should be based on the full path in a project's source tree. For example, the file foo/src/bar/baz.h in project foo should have the following guard:

#ifndef FOO_BAR_BAZ_H_
#define FOO_BAR_BAZ_H_

...

#endif  // FOO_BAR_BAZ_H_

Parameters to C/C++ functions are either input to the function, output from the function, or both. Input parameters are usually values or const references, while output and input/output parameters will be non-const pointers. When ordering function parameters, put all input-only parameters before any output parameters. In particular, do not add new parameters to the end of the function just because they are new; place new input-only parameters before the output parameters.

This is not a hard-and-fast rule. Parameters that are both input and output (often classes/structs) muddy the waters, and, as always, consistency with related functions may require you to bend the rule.

All of a project's header files should be listed as descendants of the project's source directory without use of UNIX directory shortcuts . (the current directory) or .. (the parent directory). For example, google-awesome-project/src/base/logging.h should be included as:

#include "base/logging.h"

In dir/foo.cc or dir/foo_test.cc, whose main purpose is to implement or test the stuff in dir2/foo2.h, order your includes as follows:

1. dir2/foo2.h.
2. C system files.
3. C++ system files.
4. Other libraries' .h files.
5. Your project's .h files.

With the preferred ordering, if dir2/foo2.h omits any necessary includes, the build of dir/foo.cc or dir/foo_test.cc will break. Thus, this rule ensures that build breaks show up first for the people working on these files, not for innocent people in other packages.

dir/foo.cc and dir2/foo2.h are usually in the same directory (e.g. base/basictypes_test.cc and base/basictypes.h), but may sometimes be in different directories too.

Within each section the includes should be ordered alphabetically. Note that older code might not conform to this rule and should be fixed when convenient.

You should include all the headers that define the symbols you rely upon (except in cases of forward declaration). If you rely on symbols from bar.h, don't count on the fact that you included foo.h which (currently) includes bar.h: include bar.h yourself, unless foo.h explicitly demonstrates its intent to provide you the symbols of bar.h. However, any includes present in the related header do not need to be included again in the related cc (i.e., foo.cc can rely on foo.h's includes).

For example, the includes in google-awesome-project/src/foo/internal/fooserver.cc might look like this:

#include "foo/server/fooserver.h"

#include <sys/types.h>
#include <unistd.h>
#include <hash_map>
#include <vector>

#include "base/basictypes.h"
#include "base/commandlineflags.h"
#include "foo/server/bar.h"

Sometimes, system-specific code needs conditional includes. Such code can put conditional includes after other includes. Of course, keep your system-specific code small and localized. Example:

#include "foo/public/fooserver.h"

#include "base/port.h"  // For LANG_CXX11.

#ifdef LANG_CXX11
#include <initializer_list>
#endif  // LANG_CXX11

namespace X {
inline namespace Y {
  void foo();
}
}

Unnamed Namespaces

• Unnamed namespaces are allowed and even encouraged in .cc files, to avoid link time naming conflicts:

  namespace {                           // This is in a .cc file.
  
  // The content of a namespace is not indented.
  //
  // This function is guaranteed not to generate a colliding symbol
  // with other symbols at link time, and is only visible to
  // callers in this .cc file.
  bool UpdateInternals(Frobber* f, int newval) {
    ...
  }
  
  }  // namespace
  

  However, file-scope declarations that are associated with a particular class may be declared in that class as types, static data members or static member functions rather than as members of an unnamed namespace.

• Do not use unnamed namespaces in .h files.

Named Namespaces

Named namespaces should be used as follows:

• Namespaces wrap the entire source file after includes, gflags definitions/declarations, and forward declarations of classes from other namespaces:

  // In the .h file
  namespace mynamespace {
  
  // All declarations are within the namespace scope.
  // Notice the lack of indentation.
  class MyClass {
   public:
    ...
    void Foo();
  };
  
  }  // namespace mynamespace
  

  // In the .cc file
  namespace mynamespace {
  
  // Definition of functions is within scope of the namespace.
  void MyClass::Foo() {
    ...
  }
  
  }  // namespace mynamespace
  

  The typical .cc file might have more complex detail, including the need to reference classes in other namespaces.

  #include "a.h"
  
  DEFINE_bool(someflag, false, "dummy flag");
  
  class C;  // Forward declaration of class C in the global namespace.
  namespace a { class A; }  // Forward declaration of a::A.
  
  namespace b {
  
  ...code for b...         // Code goes against the left margin.
  
  }  // namespace b
  

• Do not declare anything in namespace std, not even forward declarations of standard library classes. Declaring entities in namespace std is undefined behavior, i.e., not portable. To declare entities from the standard library, include the appropriate header file.

• You may not use a using-directive to make all names from a namespace available.

  // Forbidden -- This pollutes the namespace.
  using namespace foo;
  

• You may use a using-declaration anywhere in a .cc file, and in functions, methods or classes in .h files.

  // OK in .cc files.
  // Must be in a function, method or class in .h files.
  using ::foo::bar;
  

• Namespace aliases are allowed anywhere in a .cc file, anywhere inside the named namespace that wraps an entire .h file, and in functions and methods.

  // Shorten access to some commonly used names in .cc files.
  namespace fbz = ::foo::bar::baz;
  
  // Shorten access to some commonly used names (in a .h file).
  namespace librarian {
  // The following alias is available to all files including
  // this header (in namespace librarian):
  // alias names should therefore be chosen consistently
  // within a project.
  namespace pd_s = ::pipeline_diagnostics::sidetable;
  
  inline void my_inline_function() {
    // namespace alias local to a function (or method).
    namespace fbz = ::foo::bar::baz;
    ...
  }
  }  // namespace librarian
  

  Note that an alias in a .h file is visible to everyone #including that file, so public headers (those available outside a project) and headers transitively #included by them, should avoid defining aliases, as part of the general goal of keeping public APIs as small as possible.

• Do not use inline namespaces.

C++ allows you to declare variables anywhere in a function. We encourage you to declare them in as local a scope as possible, and as close to the first use as possible. This makes it easier for the reader to find the declaration and see what type the variable is and what it was initialized to. In particular, initialization should be used instead of declaration and assignment, e.g.:

int i;
i = f();      // Bad -- initialization separate from declaration.

int j = g();  // Good -- declaration has initialization.

vector<int> v;
v.push_back(1);  // Prefer initializing using brace initialization.
v.push_back(2);

vector<int> v = {1, 2};  // Good -- v starts initialized.

Variables needed for if, while and for statements should normally be declared within those statements, so that such variables are confined to those scopes. E.g.:

while (const char* p = strchr(str, '/')) str = p + 1;

There is one caveat: if the variable is an object, its constructor is invoked every time it enters scope and is created, and its destructor is invoked every time it goes out of scope.

// Inefficient implementation:
for (int i = 0; i < 1000000; ++i) {
  Foo f;  // My ctor and dtor get called 1000000 times each.
  f.DoSomething(i);
}

It may be more efficient to declare such a variable used in a loop outside that loop:

Foo f;  // My ctor and dtor get called once each.
for (int i = 0; i < 1000000; ++i) {
  f.DoSomething(i);
}

Objects with static storage duration, including global variables, static variables, static class member variables, and function static variables, must be Plain Old Data (POD): only ints, chars, floats, or pointers, or arrays/structs of POD.

The order in which class constructors and initializers for static variables are called is only partially specified in C++ and can even change from build to build, which can cause bugs that are difficult to find. Therefore in addition to banning globals of class type, we do not allow static POD variables to be initialized with the result of a function, unless that function (such as getenv(), or getpid()) does not itself depend on any other globals. (This prohibition does not apply to a static variable within function scope, since its initialization order is well-defined and does not occur until control passes through its declaration.)

Likewise, global and static variables are destroyed when the program terminates, regardless of whether the termination is by returning from main() or by calling exit(). The order in which destructors are called is defined to be the reverse of the order in which the constructors were called. Since constructor order is indeterminate, so is destructor order. For example, at program-end time a static variable might have been destroyed, but code still running — perhaps in another thread — tries to access it and fails. Or the destructor for a static string variable might be run prior to the destructor for another variable that contains a reference to that string.

One way to alleviate the destructor problem is to terminate the program by calling quick_exit() instead of exit(). The difference is that quick_exit() does not invoke destructors and does not invoke any handlers that were registered by calling atexit(). If you have a handler that needs to run when a program terminates via quick_exit() (flushing logs, for example), you can register it using at_quick_exit(). (If you have a handler that needs to run at both exit() and quick_exit(), you need to register it in both places.)

As a result we only allow static variables to contain POD data. This rule completely disallows vector (use C arrays instead), or string (use const char []).

If you need a static or global variable of a class type, consider initializing a pointer (which will never be freed), from either your main() function or from pthread_once(). Note that this must be a raw pointer, not a "smart" pointer, since the smart pointer's destructor will have the order-of-destructor issue that we are trying to avoid.

The struct and class keywords behave almost identically in C++. We add our own semantic meanings to each keyword, so you should use the appropriate keyword for the data-type you're defining.

structs should be used for passive objects that carry data, and may have associated constants, but lack any functionality other than access/setting the data members. The accessing/setting of fields is done by directly accessing the fields rather than through method invocations. Methods should not provide behavior but should only be used to set up the data members, e.g., constructor, destructor, Initialize(), Reset(), Validate().

If more functionality is required, a class is more appropriate. If in doubt, make it a class.

For consistency with STL, you can use struct instead of class for functors and traits.

Note that member variables in structs and classes have different naming rules.

The definitions of accessors are usually inlined in the header file.

See also Inheritance and Function Names.

Your class definition should start with its public: section, followed by its protected: section and then its private: section. If any of these sections are empty, omit them.

Within each section, the declarations generally should be in the following order:

• Typedefs and Enums
• Constants (static const data members)
• Constructors
• Destructor
• Methods, including static methods
• Data Members (except static const data members)

Friend declarations should always be in the private section. If copying and assignment are disabled with a macro such as DISALLOW_COPY_AND_ASSIGN, it should be at the end of the private: section, and should be the last thing in the class. See Copyable and Movable Types.

Method definitions in the corresponding .cc file should be the same as the declaration order, as much as possible.

Do not put large method definitions inline in the class definition. Usually, only trivial or performance-critical, and very short, methods may be defined inline. See Inline Functions for more details.

We recognize that long functions are sometimes appropriate, so no hard limit is placed on functions length. If a function exceeds about 40 lines, think about whether it can be broken up without harming the structure of the program.

Even if your long function works perfectly now, someone modifying it in a few months may add new behavior. This could result in bugs that are hard to find. Keeping your functions short and simple makes it easier for other people to read and modify your code.

You could find long and complicated functions when working with some code. Do not be intimidated by modifying existing code: if working with such a function proves to be difficult, you find that errors are hard to debug, or you want to use a piece of it in several different contexts, consider breaking up the function into smaller and more manageable pieces.

cpplint.py is a tool that reads a source file and identifies many style errors. It is not perfect, and has both false positives and false negatives, but it is still a valuable tool. False positives can be ignored by putting // NOLINT at the end of the line or // NOLINTNEXTLINE in the previous line.

Some projects have instructions on how to run cpplint.py from their project tools. If the project you are contributing to does not, you can download cpplint.py separately.

Friends should usually be defined in the same file so that the reader does not have to look in another file to find uses of the private members of a class. A common use of friend is to have a FooBuilder class be a friend of Foo so that it can construct the inner state of Foo correctly, without exposing this state to the world. In some cases it may be useful to make a unittest class a friend of the class it tests.

Friends extend, but do not break, the encapsulation boundary of a class. In some cases this is better than making a member public when you want to give only one other class access to it. However, most classes should interact with other classes solely through their public members.

• printf() specifiers for some types are not cleanly portable between 32-bit and 64-bit systems. C99 defines some portable format specifiers. Unfortunately, MSVC 7.1 does not understand some of these specifiers and the standard is missing a few, so we have to define our own ugly versions in some cases (in the style of the standard include file inttypes.h):

  // printf macros for size_t, in the style of inttypes.h
  #ifdef _LP64
  #define __PRIS_PREFIX "z"
  #else
  #define __PRIS_PREFIX
  #endif
  
  // Use these macros after a % in a printf format string
  // to get correct 32/64 bit behavior, like this:
  // size_t size = records.size();
  // printf("%"PRIuS"\n", size);
  
  #define PRIdS __PRIS_PREFIX "d"
  #define PRIxS __PRIS_PREFIX "x"
  #define PRIuS __PRIS_PREFIX "u"
  #define PRIXS __PRIS_PREFIX "X"
  #define PRIoS __PRIS_PREFIX "o"
    

  Type	DO NOT use	DO use	Notes
  void * (or any pointer)	%lx	%p
  int64_t	%qd, %lld	%"PRId64"
  uint64_t	%qu, %llu, %llx	%"PRIu64", %"PRIx64"
  size_t	%u	%"PRIuS", %"PRIxS"	C99 specifies %zu
  ptrdiff_t	%d	%"PRIdS"	C99 specifies %td

  Note that the PRI* macros expand to independent strings which are concatenated by the compiler. Hence if you are using a non-constant format string, you need to insert the value of the macro into the format, rather than the name. It is still possible, as usual, to include length specifiers, etc., after the % when using the PRI* macros. So, e.g. printf("x = %30"PRIuS"\n", x) would expand on 32-bit Linux to printf("x = %30" "u" "\n", x), which the compiler will treat as printf("x = %30u\n", x).

• Remember that sizeof(void *) != sizeof(int). Use intptr_t if you want a pointer-sized integer.
• You may need to be careful with structure alignments, particularly for structures being stored on disk. Any class/structure with a int64_t/uint64_t member will by default end up being 8-byte aligned on a 64-bit system. If you have such structures being shared on disk between 32-bit and 64-bit code, you will need to ensure that they are packed the same on both architectures. Most compilers offer a way to alter structure alignment. For gcc, you can use __attribute__((packed)). MSVC offers #pragma pack() and __declspec(align()).

• Use the LL or ULL suffixes as needed to create 64-bit constants. For example:

  int64_t my_value = 0x123456789LL;
  uint64_t my_mask = 3ULL << 48;
  

• If you really need different code on 32-bit and 64-bit systems, use #ifdef _LP64 to choose between the code variants. (But please avoid this if possible, and keep any such changes localized.)

Macros mean that the code you see is not the same as the code the compiler sees. This can introduce unexpected behavior, especially since macros have global scope.

Luckily, macros are not nearly as necessary in C++ as they are in C. Instead of using a macro to inline performance-critical code, use an inline function. Instead of using a macro to store a constant, use a const variable. Instead of using a macro to "abbreviate" a long variable name, use a reference. Instead of using a macro to conditionally compile code ... well, don't do that at all (except, of course, for the #define guards to prevent double inclusion of header files). It makes testing much more difficult.

Macros can do things these other techniques cannot, and you do see them in the codebase, especially in the lower-level libraries. And some of their special features (like stringifying, concatenation, and so forth) are not available through the language proper. But before using a macro, consider carefully whether there's a non-macro way to achieve the same result.

The following usage pattern will avoid many problems with macros; if you use macros, follow it whenever possible:

• Don't define macros in a .h file.
• #define macros right before you use them, and #undef them right after.
• Do not just #undef an existing macro before replacing it with your own; instead, pick a name that's likely to be unique.
• Try not to use macros that expand to unbalanced C++ constructs, or at least document that behavior well.
• Prefer not using ## to generate function/class/variable names.

Use 0 for integers and 0.0 for reals. This is not controversial.

For pointers (address values), there is a choice between 0, NULL, and nullptr. For projects that allow C++11 features, use nullptr. For C++03 projects, we prefer NULL because it looks like a pointer. In fact, some C++ compilers provide special definitions of NULL which enable them to give useful warnings, particularly in situations where sizeof(NULL) is not equal to sizeof(0).

Use '\0' for chars. This is the correct type and also makes code more readable.

Use sizeof(varname) when you take the size of a particular variable. sizeof(varname) will update appropriately if someone changes the variable type either now or later. You may use sizeof(type) for code unrelated to any particular variable, such as code that manages an external or internal data format where a variable of an appropriate C++ type is not convenient.

Struct data;
memset(&data, 0, sizeof(data));

memset(&data, 0, sizeof(Struct));

if (raw_size < sizeof(int)) {
  LOG(ERROR) << "compressed record not big enough for count: " << raw_size;
  return false;
}

vector<string> v;
...
auto s1 = v[0];  // Makes a copy of v[0].
const auto& s2 = v[0];  // s2 is a reference to v[0].

sparse_hash_map<string, int>::iterator iter = m.find(val);

the return type is hard to read, and obscures the primary purpose of the statement. Changing it to:

auto iter = m.find(val);

makes it more readable.

Without auto we are sometimes forced to write a type name twice in the same expression, adding no value for the reader, as in:

diagnostics::ErrorStatus* status = new diagnostics::ErrorStatus("xyz");

Using auto makes it easier to use intermediate variables when appropriate, by reducing the burden of writing their types explicitly.

auto i = x.Lookup(key);

auto x(3);  // Note: parentheses.
auto y{3};  // Note: curly braces.

In C++03, aggregate types (arrays and structs with no constructor) could be initialized with braced initializer lists.

struct Point { int x; int y; };
Point p = {1, 2};

In C++11, this syntax was generalized, and any object type can now be created with a braced initializer list, known as a braced-init-list in the C++ grammar. Here are a few examples of its use.

// Vector takes a braced-init-list of elements.
vector<string> v{"foo", "bar"};

// Basically the same, ignoring some small technicalities.
// You may choose to use either form.
vector<string> v = {"foo", "bar"};

// Usable with 'new' expressions.
auto p = new vector<string>{"foo", "bar"};

// A map can take a list of pairs. Nested braced-init-lists work.
map<int, string> m = {{1, "one"}, {2, "2"}};

// A braced-init-list can be implicitly converted to a return type.
vector<int> test_function() { return {1, 2, 3}; }

// Iterate over a braced-init-list.
for (int i : {-1, -2, -3}) {}

// Call a function using a braced-init-list.
void TestFunction2(vector<int> v) {}
TestFunction2({1, 2, 3});

A user-defined type can also define a constructor and/or assignment operator that take std::initializer_list<T>, which is automatically created from braced-init-list:

class MyType {
 public:
  // std::initializer_list references the underlying init list.
  // It should be passed by value.
  MyType(std::initializer_list<int> init_list) {
    for (int i : init_list) append(i);
  }
  MyType& operator=(std::initializer_list<int> init_list) {
    clear();
    for (int i : init_list) append(i);
  }
};
MyType m{2, 3, 5, 7};

Finally, brace initialization can also call ordinary constructors of data types, even if they do not have std::initializer_list<T> constructors.

double d{1.23};
// Calls ordinary constructor as long as MyOtherType has no
// std::initializer_list constructor.
class MyOtherType {
 public:
  explicit MyOtherType(string);
  MyOtherType(int, string);
};
MyOtherType m = {1, "b"};
// If the constructor is explicit, you can't use the "= {}" form.
MyOtherType m{"b"};

Never assign a braced-init-list to an auto local variable. In the single element case, what this means can be confusing.

auto d = {1.23};        // d is a std::initializer_list<double>

auto d = double{1.23};  // Good -- d is a double, not a std::initializer_list.

See Braced_Initializer_List_Format for formatting.

Give as descriptive a name as possible, within reason. Do not worry about saving horizontal space as it is far more important to make your code immediately understandable by a new reader. Do not use abbreviations that are ambiguous or unfamiliar to readers outside your project, and do not abbreviate by deleting letters within a word.

int price_count_reader;    // No abbreviation.
int num_errors;            // "num" is a widespread convention.
int num_dns_connections;   // Most people know what "DNS" stands for.

int n;                     // Meaningless.
int nerr;                  // Ambiguous abbreviation.
int n_comp_conns;          // Ambiguous abbreviation.
int wgc_connections;       // Only your group knows what this stands for.
int pc_reader;             // Lots of things can be abbreviated "pc".
int cstmr_id;              // Deletes internal letters.

Examples of acceptable file names:

• my_useful_class.cc
• my-useful-class.cc
• myusefulclass.cc
• myusefulclass_test.cc // _unittest and _regtest are deprecated.

C++ files should end in .cc and header files should end in .h. Files that rely on being textually included at specific points should end in .inc (see also the section on self-contained headers).

Do not use filenames that already exist in /usr/include, such as db.h.

In general, make your filenames very specific. For example, use http_server_logs.h rather than logs.h. A very common case is to have a pair of files called, e.g., foo_bar.h and foo_bar.cc, defining a class called FooBar.

Inline functions must be in a .h file. If your inline functions are very short, they should go directly into your .h file.

The names of all types — classes, structs, typedefs, and enums — have the same naming convention. Type names should start with a capital letter and have a capital letter for each new word. No underscores. For example:

// classes and structs
class UrlTable { ...
class UrlTableTester { ...
struct UrlTableProperties { ...

// typedefs
typedef hash_map<UrlTableProperties *, string> PropertiesMap;

// enums
enum UrlTableErrors { ...

Common Variable names

For example:

string table_name;  // OK - uses underscore.
string tablename;   // OK - all lowercase.

string tableName;   // Bad - mixed case.

Class Data Members

Data members of classes, both static and non-static, are named like ordinary nonmember variables, but with a trailing underscore.

class TableInfo {
  ...
 private:
  string table_name_;  // OK - underscore at end.
  string tablename_;   // OK.
  static Pool<TableInfo>* pool_;  // OK.
};

Struct Data Members

Data members of structs, both static and non-static, are named like ordinary nonmember variables. They do not have the trailing underscores that data members in classes have.

struct UrlTableProperties {
  string name;
  int num_entries;
  static Pool<UrlTableProperties>* pool;
};

See Structs vs. Classes for a discussion of when to use a struct versus a class.

Global Variables

There are no special requirements for global variables, which should be rare in any case, but if you use one, consider prefixing it with g_ or some other marker to easily distinguish it from local variables.

As a convenience to the reader, compile-time constants of global or class scope follow a different naming convention from other variables. Use a k followed by words with uppercase first letters:

const int kDaysInAWeek = 7;

This convention may optionally be used for compile-time constants of local scope; otherwise the usual variable naming rules apply.

Regular Functions

Functions should start with a capital letter and have a capital letter for each new word. No underscores.

If your function crashes upon an error, you should append OrDie to the function name. This only applies to functions which could be used by production code and to errors that are reasonably likely to occur during normal operation.

AddTableEntry()
DeleteUrl()
OpenFileOrDie()

Accessors and Mutators

Accessors and mutators (get and set functions) should match the name of the variable they are getting and setting. This shows an excerpt of a class whose instance variable is num_entries_.

class MyClass {
 public:
  ...
  int num_entries() const { return num_entries_; }
  void set_num_entries(int num_entries) { num_entries_ = num_entries; }

 private:
  int num_entries_;
};

You may also use lowercase letters for other very short inlined functions. For example if a function were so cheap you would not cache the value if you were calling it in a loop, then lowercase naming would be acceptable.

See Namespaces for a discussion of namespaces and how to name them.

Preferably, the individual enumerators should be named like constants. However, it is also acceptable to name them like macros. The enumeration name, UrlTableErrors (and AlternateUrlTableErrors), is a type, and therefore mixed case.

enum UrlTableErrors {
  kOK = 0,
  kErrorOutOfMemory,
  kErrorMalformedInput,
};
enum AlternateUrlTableErrors {
  OK = 0,
  OUT_OF_MEMORY = 1,
  MALFORMED_INPUT = 2,
};

Until January 2009, the style was to name enum values like macros. This caused problems with name collisions between enum values and macros. Hence, the change to prefer constant-style naming was put in place. New code should prefer constant-style naming if possible. However, there is no reason to change old code to use constant-style names, unless the old names are actually causing a compile-time problem.

Please see the description of macros; in general macros should not be used. However, if they are absolutely needed, then they should be named with all capitals and underscores.

#define ROUND(x) ...
#define PI_ROUNDED 3.0

bigopen()

function name, follows form of open()

uint

typedef

bigpos

struct or class, follows form of pos

sparse_hash_map

STL-like entity; follows STL naming conventions

LONGLONG_MAX

a constant, as in INT_MAX

You can use either the // or the /* */ syntax; however, // is much more common. Be consistent with how you comment and what style you use where.

Legal Notice and Author Line

Every file should contain license boilerplate. Choose the appropriate boilerplate for the license used by the project (for example, Apache 2.0, BSD, LGPL, GPL).

If you make significant changes to a file with an author line, consider deleting the author line.

File Contents

Every file should have a comment at the top describing its contents.

Generally a .h file will describe the classes that are declared in the file with an overview of what they are for and how they are used. A .cc file should contain more information about implementation details or discussions of tricky algorithms. If you feel the implementation details or a discussion of the algorithms would be useful for someone reading the .h, feel free to put it there instead, but mention in the .cc that the documentation is in the .h file.

Do not duplicate comments in both the .h and the .cc. Duplicated comments diverge.

// Iterates over the contents of a GargantuanTable.  Sample usage:
//    GargantuanTableIterator* iter = table->NewIterator();
//    for (iter->Seek("foo"); !iter->done(); iter->Next()) {
//      process(iter->key(), iter->value());
//    }
//    delete iter;
class GargantuanTableIterator {
  ...
};

If you have already described a class in detail in the comments at the top of your file feel free to simply state "See comment at top of file for a complete description", but be sure to have some sort of comment.

Document the synchronization assumptions the class makes, if any. If an instance of the class can be accessed by multiple threads, take extra care to document the rules and invariants surrounding multithreaded use.

Function Declarations

Every function declaration should have comments immediately preceding it that describe what the function does and how to use it. These comments should be descriptive ("Opens the file") rather than imperative ("Open the file"); the comment describes the function, it does not tell the function what to do. In general, these comments do not describe how the function performs its task. Instead, that should be left to comments in the function definition.

Types of things to mention in comments at the function declaration:

• What the inputs and outputs are.
• For class member functions: whether the object remembers reference arguments beyond the duration of the method call, and whether it will free them or not.
• If the function allocates memory that the caller must free.
• Whether any of the arguments can be a null pointer.
• If there are any performance implications of how a function is used.
• If the function is re-entrant. What are its synchronization assumptions?

Here is an example:

// Returns an iterator for this table.  It is the client's
// responsibility to delete the iterator when it is done with it,
// and it must not use the iterator once the GargantuanTable object
// on which the iterator was created has been deleted.
//
// The iterator is initially positioned at the beginning of the table.
//
// This method is equivalent to:
//    Iterator* iter = table->NewIterator();
//    iter->Seek("");
//    return iter;
// If you are going to immediately seek to another place in the
// returned iterator, it will be faster to use NewIterator()
// and avoid the extra seek.
Iterator* GetIterator() const;

However, do not be unnecessarily verbose or state the completely obvious. Notice below that it is not necessary to say "returns false otherwise" because this is implied.

// Returns true if the table cannot hold any more entries.
bool IsTableFull();

When commenting constructors and destructors, remember that the person reading your code knows what constructors and destructors are for, so comments that just say something like "destroys this object" are not useful. Document what constructors do with their arguments (for example, if they take ownership of pointers), and what cleanup the destructor does. If this is trivial, just skip the comment. It is quite common for destructors not to have a header comment.

Function Definitions

If there is anything tricky about how a function does its job, the function definition should have an explanatory comment. For example, in the definition comment you might describe any coding tricks you use, give an overview of the steps you go through, or explain why you chose to implement the function in the way you did rather than using a viable alternative. For instance, you might mention why it must acquire a lock for the first half of the function but why it is not needed for the second half.

Note you should not just repeat the comments given with the function declaration, in the .h file or wherever. It's okay to recapitulate briefly what the function does, but the focus of the comments should be on how it does it.

Class Data Members

Each class data member (also called an instance variable or member variable) should have a comment describing what it is used for. If the variable can take sentinel values with special meanings, such as a null pointer or -1, document this. For example:

private:
 // Keeps track of the total number of entries in the table.
 // Used to ensure we do not go over the limit. -1 means
 // that we don't yet know how many entries the table has.
 int num_total_entries_;

Global Variables

As with data members, all global variables should have a comment describing what they are and what they are used for. For example:

// The total number of tests cases that we run through in this regression test.
const int kNumTestCases = 6;

Explanatory Comments

Tricky or complicated code blocks should have comments before them. Example:

// Divide result by two, taking into account that x
// contains the carry from the add.
for (int i = 0; i < result->size(); i++) {
  x = (x << 8) + (*result)[i];
  (*result)[i] = x >> 1;
  x &= 1;
}

Line Comments

Also, lines that are non-obvious should get a comment at the end of the line. These end-of-line comments should be separated from the code by 2 spaces. Example:

// If we have enough memory, mmap the data portion too.
mmap_budget = max<int64>(0, mmap_budget - index_->length());
if (mmap_budget >= data_size_ && !MmapData(mmap_chunk_bytes, mlock))
  return;  // Error already logged.

Note that there are both comments that describe what the code is doing, and comments that mention that an error has already been logged when the function returns.

If you have several comments on subsequent lines, it can often be more readable to line them up:

DoSomething();                  // Comment here so the comments line up.
DoSomethingElseThatIsLonger();  // Two spaces between the code and the comment.
{ // One space before comment when opening a new scope is allowed,
  // thus the comment lines up with the following comments and code.
  DoSomethingElse();  // Two spaces before line comments normally.
}
vector<string> list{// Comments in braced lists describe the next element ..
                    "First item",
                    // .. and should be aligned appropriately.
                    "Second item"};
DoSomething(); /* For trailing block comments, one space is fine. */

nullptr/NULL, true/false, 1, 2, 3...

When you pass in a null pointer, boolean, or literal integer values to functions, you should consider adding a comment about what they are, or make your code self-documenting by using constants. For example, compare:

bool success = CalculateSomething(interesting_value,
                                  10,
                                  false,
                                  NULL);  // What are these arguments??

versus:

bool success = CalculateSomething(interesting_value,
                                  10,     // Default base value.
                                  false,  // Not the first time we're calling this.
                                  NULL);  // No callback.

Or alternatively, constants or self-describing variables:

const int kDefaultBaseValue = 10;
const bool kFirstTimeCalling = false;
Callback *null_callback = NULL;
bool success = CalculateSomething(interesting_value,
                                  kDefaultBaseValue,
                                  kFirstTimeCalling,
                                  null_callback);

Don'ts

Note that you should never describe the code itself. Assume that the person reading the code knows C++ better than you do, even though he or she does not know what you are trying to do:

// Now go through the b array and make sure that if i occurs,
// the next element is i+1.
...        // Geez.  What a useless comment.

Comments should be as readable as narrative text, with proper capitalization and punctuation. In many cases, complete sentences are more readable than sentence fragments. Shorter comments, such as comments at the end of a line of code, can sometimes be less formal, but you should be consistent with your style.

Although it can be frustrating to have a code reviewer point out that you are using a comma when you should be using a semicolon, it is very important that source code maintain a high level of clarity and readability. Proper punctuation, spelling, and grammar help with that goal.

TODOs should include the string TODO in all caps, followed by the name, e-mail address, or other identifier of the person with the best context about the problem referenced by the TODO. The main purpose is to have a consistent TODO that can be searched to find out how to get more details upon request. A TODO is not a commitment that the person referenced will fix the problem. Thus when you create a TODO, it is almost always your name that is given.

// TODO(kl@gmail.com): Use a "*" here for concatenation operator.
// TODO(Zeke) change this to use relations.

If your TODO is of the form "At a future date do something" make sure that you either include a very specific date ("Fix by November 2005") or a very specific event ("Remove this code when all clients can handle XML responses.").

You can mark an interface as deprecated by writing a comment containing the word DEPRECATED in all caps. The comment goes either before the declaration of the interface or on the same line as the declaration.

After the word DEPRECATED, write your name, e-mail address, or other identifier in parentheses.

A deprecation comment must include simple, clear directions for people to fix their callsites. In C++, you can implement a deprecated function as an inline function that calls the new interface point.

Marking an interface point DEPRECATED will not magically cause any callsites to change. If you want people to actually stop using the deprecated facility, you will have to fix the callsites yourself or recruit a crew to help you.

New code should not contain calls to deprecated interface points. Use the new interface point instead. If you cannot understand the directions, find the person who created the deprecation and ask them for help using the new interface point.

We recognize that this rule is controversial, but so much existing code already adheres to it, and we feel that consistency is important.

You shouldn't hard-code user-facing text in source, even English, so use of non-ASCII characters should be rare. However, in certain cases it is appropriate to include such words in your code. For example, if your code parses data files from foreign sources, it may be appropriate to hard-code the non-ASCII string(s) used in those data files as delimiters. More commonly, unittest code (which does not need to be localized) might contain non-ASCII strings. In such cases, you should use UTF-8, since that is an encoding understood by most tools able to handle more than just ASCII.

Hex encoding is also OK, and encouraged where it enhances readability — for example, "\xEF\xBB\xBF", or, even more simply, u8"\uFEFF", is the Unicode zero-width no-break space character, which would be invisible if included in the source as straight UTF-8.

Use the u8 prefix to guarantee that a string literal containing \uXXXX escape sequences is encoded as UTF-8. Do not use it for strings containing non-ASCII characters encoded as UTF-8, because that will produce incorrect output if the compiler does not interpret the source file as UTF-8.

You shouldn't use the C++11 char16_t and char32_t character types, since they're for non-UTF-8 text. For similar reasons you also shouldn't use wchar_t (unless you're writing code that interacts with the Windows API, which uses wchar_t extensively).

We use spaces for indentation. Do not use tabs in your code. You should set your editor to emit spaces when you hit the tab key.

Functions look like this:

ReturnType ClassName::FunctionName(Type par_name1, Type par_name2) {
  DoSomething();
  ...
}

If you have too much text to fit on one line:

ReturnType ClassName::ReallyLongFunctionName(Type par_name1, Type par_name2,
                                             Type par_name3) {
  DoSomething();
  ...
}

or if you cannot fit even the first parameter:

ReturnType LongClassName::ReallyReallyReallyLongFunctionName(
    Type par_name1,  // 4 space indent
    Type par_name2,
    Type par_name3) {
  DoSomething();  // 2 space indent
  ...
}

Some points to note:

• If you cannot fit the return type and the function name on a single line, break between them.
• If you break after the return type of a function declaration or definition, do not indent.
• The open parenthesis is always on the same line as the function name.
• There is never a space between the function name and the open parenthesis.
• There is never a space between the parentheses and the parameters.
• The open curly brace is always at the end of the same line as the last parameter.
• The close curly brace is either on the last line by itself or (if other style rules permit) on the same line as the open curly brace.
• There should be a space between the close parenthesis and the open curly brace.
• All parameters should be named, with identical names in the declaration and implementation.
• All parameters should be aligned if possible.
• Default indentation is 2 spaces.
• Wrapped parameters have a 4 space indent.

If some parameters are unused, comment out the variable name in the function definition:

// Always have named parameters in interfaces.
class Shape {
 public:
  virtual void Rotate(double radians) = 0;
};

// Always have named parameters in the declaration.
class Circle : public Shape {
 public:
  virtual void Rotate(double radians);
};

// Comment out unused named parameters in definitions.
void Circle::Rotate(double /*radians*/) {}

// Bad - if someone wants to implement later, it's not clear what the
// variable means.
void Circle::Rotate(double) {}

For by-reference captures, do not leave a space between the ampersand (&) and the variable name.

int x = 0;
auto add_to_x = [&x](int n) { x += n; };

Short lambdas may be written inline as function arguments.

std::set<int> blacklist = {7, 8, 9};
std::vector<int> digits = {3, 9, 1, 8, 4, 7, 1};
digits.erase(std::remove_if(digits.begin(), digits.end(), [&blacklist](int i) {
               return blacklist.find(i) != blacklist.end();
             }),
             digits.end());

Function calls have the following format:

bool retval = DoSomething(argument1, argument2, argument3);

If the arguments do not all fit on one line, they should be broken up onto multiple lines, with each subsequent line aligned with the first argument. Do not add spaces after the open paren or before the close paren:

bool retval = DoSomething(averyveryveryverylongargument1,
                          argument2, argument3);

Arguments may optionally all be placed on subsequent lines with a four space indent:

if (...) {
  ...
  ...
  if (...) {
    DoSomething(
        argument1, argument2,  // 4 space indent
        argument3, argument4);
  }

Put multiple arguments on a single line to reduce the number of lines necessary for calling a function unless there is a specific readability problem. Some find that formatting with strictly one argument on each line is more readable and simplifies editing of the arguments. However, we prioritize for the reader over the ease of editing arguments, and most readability problems are better addressed with the following techniques.

If having multiple arguments in a single line decreases readability due to the complexity or confusing nature of the expressions that make up some arguments, try creating variables that capture those arguments in a descriptive name:

int my_heuristic = scores[x] * y + bases[x];
bool retval = DoSomething(my_heuristic, x, y, z);

Or put the confusing argument on its own line with an explanatory comment:

bool retval = DoSomething(scores[x] * y + bases[x],  // Score heuristic.
                          x, y, z);

If there is still a case where one argument is significantly more readable on its own line, then put it on its own line. The decision should be specific to the argument which is made more readable rather than a general policy.

Sometimes arguments form a structure that is important for readability. In those cases, feel free to format the arguments according to that structure:

// Transform the widget by a 3x3 matrix.
my_widget.Transform(x1, x2, x3,
                    y1, y2, y3,
                    z1, z2, z3);

If the braced list follows a name (e.g. a type or variable name), format as if the {} were the parentheses of a function call with that name. If there is no name, assume a zero-length name.

// Examples of braced init list on a single line.
return {foo, bar};
functioncall({foo, bar});
pair<int, int> p{foo, bar};

// When you have to wrap.
SomeFunction(
    {"assume a zero-length name before {"},
    some_other_function_parameter);
SomeType variable{
    some, other, values,
    {"assume a zero-length name before {"},
    SomeOtherType{
        "Very long string requiring the surrounding breaks.",
        some, other values},
    SomeOtherType{"Slightly shorter string",
                  some, other, values}};
SomeType variable{
    "This is too long to fit all in one line"};
MyType m = {  // Here, you could also break before {.
    superlongvariablename1,
    superlongvariablename2,
    {short, interior, list},
    {interiorwrappinglist,
     interiorwrappinglist2}};

There are two acceptable formats for a basic conditional statement. One includes spaces between the parentheses and the condition, and one does not.

The most common form is without spaces. Either is fine, but be consistent. If you are modifying a file, use the format that is already present. If you are writing new code, use the format that the other files in that directory or project use. If in doubt and you have no personal preference, do not add the spaces.

if (condition) {  // no spaces inside parentheses
  ...  // 2 space indent.
} else if (...) {  // The else goes on the same line as the closing brace.
  ...
} else {
  ...
}

If you prefer you may add spaces inside the parentheses:

if ( condition ) {  // spaces inside parentheses - rare
  ...  // 2 space indent.
} else {  // The else goes on the same line as the closing brace.
  ...
}

Note that in all cases you must have a space between the if and the open parenthesis. You must also have a space between the close parenthesis and the curly brace, if you're using one.

if(condition) {   // Bad - space missing after IF.
if (condition){   // Bad - space missing before {.
if(condition){    // Doubly bad.

if (condition) {  // Good - proper space after IF and before {.

Short conditional statements may be written on one line if this enhances readability. You may use this only when the line is brief and the statement does not use the else clause.

if (x == kFoo) return new Foo();
if (x == kBar) return new Bar();

This is not allowed when the if statement has an else:

// Not allowed - IF statement on one line when there is an ELSE clause
if (x) DoThis();
else DoThat();

In general, curly braces are not required for single-line statements, but they are allowed if you like them; conditional or loop statements with complex conditions or statements may be more readable with curly braces. Some projects require that an if must always always have an accompanying brace.

if (condition)
  DoSomething();  // 2 space indent.

if (condition) {
  DoSomething();  // 2 space indent.
}

However, if one part of an if-else statement uses curly braces, the other part must too:

// Not allowed - curly on IF but not ELSE
if (condition) {
  foo;
} else
  bar;

// Not allowed - curly on ELSE but not IF
if (condition)
  foo;
else {
  bar;
}

// Curly braces around both IF and ELSE required because
// one of the clauses used braces.
if (condition) {
  foo;
} else {
  bar;
}

case blocks in switch statements can have curly braces or not, depending on your preference. If you do include curly braces they should be placed as shown below.

If not conditional on an enumerated value, switch statements should always have a default case (in the case of an enumerated value, the compiler will warn you if any values are not handled). If the default case should never execute, simply assert:

switch (var) {
  case 0: {  // 2 space indent
    ...      // 4 space indent
    break;
  }
  case 1: {
    ...
    break;
  }
  default: {
    assert(false);
  }
}

Braces are optional for single-statement loops.

for (int i = 0; i < kSomeNumber; ++i)
  printf("I love you\n");

for (int i = 0; i < kSomeNumber; ++i) {
  printf("I take it back\n");
}

Empty loop bodies should use {} or continue, but not a single semicolon.

while (condition) {
  // Repeat test until it returns false.
}
for (int i = 0; i < kSomeNumber; ++i) {}  // Good - empty body.
while (condition) continue;  // Good - continue indicates no logic.

while (condition);  // Bad - looks like part of do/while loop.

The following are examples of correctly-formatted pointer and reference expressions:

x = *p;
p = &x;
x = r.y;
x = r->y;

Note that:

• There are no spaces around the period or arrow when accessing a member.
• Pointer operators have no space after the * or &.

When declaring a pointer variable or argument, you may place the asterisk adjacent to either the type or to the variable name:

// These are fine, space preceding.
char *c;
const string &str;

// These are fine, space following.
char* c;    // but remember to do "char* c, *d, *e, ...;"!
const string& str;

char * c;  // Bad - spaces on both sides of *
const string & str;  // Bad - spaces on both sides of &

You should do this consistently within a single file, so, when modifying an existing file, use the style in that file.

In this example, the logical AND operator is always at the end of the lines:

if (this_one_thing > this_other_thing &&
    a_third_thing == a_fourth_thing &&
    yet_another && last_one) {
  ...
}

Note that when the code wraps in this example, both of the && logical AND operators are at the end of the line. This is more common in Google code, though wrapping all operators at the beginning of the line is also allowed. Feel free to insert extra parentheses judiciously because they can be very helpful in increasing readability when used appropriately. Also note that you should always use the punctuation operators, such as && and ~, rather than the word operators, such as and and compl.

Use parentheses in return expr; only where you would use them in x = expr;.

return result;                  // No parentheses in the simple case.
// Parentheses OK to make a complex expression more readable.
return (some_long_condition &&
        another_condition);

return (value);                // You wouldn't write var = (value);
return(result);                // return is not a function!

You may choose between =, (), and {}; the following are all correct:

int x = 3;
int x(3);
int x{3};
string name = "Some Name";
string name("Some Name");
string name{"Some Name"};

Be careful when using a braced initialization list {...} on a type with an std::initializer_list constructor. A nonempty braced-init-list prefers the std::initializer_list constructor whenever possible. Note that empty braces {} are special, and will call a default constructor if available. To force the non-std::initializer_list constructor, use parentheses instead of braces.

vector<int> v(100, 1);  // A vector of 100 1s.
vector<int> v{100, 1};  // A vector of 100, 1.

Also, the brace form prevents narrowing of integral types. This can prevent some types of programming errors.

int pi(3.14);  // OK -- pi == 3.
int pi{3.14};  // Compile error: narrowing conversion.

Even when preprocessor directives are within the body of indented code, the directives should start at the beginning of the line.

// Good - directives at beginning of line
  if (lopsided_score) {
#if DISASTER_PENDING      // Correct -- Starts at beginning of line
    DropEverything();
# if NOTIFY               // OK but not required -- Spaces after #
    NotifyClient();
# endif
#endif
    BackToNormal();
  }

// Bad - indented directives
  if (lopsided_score) {
    #if DISASTER_PENDING  // Wrong!  The "#if" should be at beginning of line
    DropEverything();
    #endif                // Wrong!  Do not indent "#endif"
    BackToNormal();
  }

The basic format for a class declaration (lacking the comments, see Class Comments for a discussion of what comments are needed) is:

class MyClass : public OtherClass {
 public:      // Note the 1 space indent!
  MyClass();  // Regular 2 space indent.
  explicit MyClass(int var);
  ~MyClass() {}

  void SomeFunction();
  void SomeFunctionThatDoesNothing() {
  }

  void set_some_var(int var) { some_var_ = var; }
  int some_var() const { return some_var_; }

 private:
  bool SomeInternalFunction();

  int some_var_;
  int some_other_var_;
};

Things to note:

• Any base class name should be on the same line as the subclass name, subject to the 80-column limit.
• The public:, protected:, and private: keywords should be indented one space.
• Except for the first instance, these keywords should be preceded by a blank line. This rule is optional in small classes.
• Do not leave a blank line after these keywords.
• The public section should be first, followed by the protected and finally the private section.
• See Declaration Order for rules on ordering declarations within each of these sections.

There are two acceptable formats for initializer lists:

// When it all fits on one line:
MyClass::MyClass(int var) : some_var_(var), some_other_var_(var + 1) {}

or

// When it requires multiple lines, indent 4 spaces, putting the colon on
// the first initializer line:
MyClass::MyClass(int var)
    : some_var_(var),             // 4 space indent
      some_other_var_(var + 1) {  // lined up
  ...
  DoSomething();
  ...
}

Namespaces do not add an extra level of indentation. For example, use:

namespace {

void foo() {  // Correct.  No extra indentation within namespace.
  ...
}

}  // namespace

Do not indent within a namespace:

namespace {

  // Wrong.  Indented when it should not be.
  void foo() {
    ...
  }

}  // namespace

When declaring nested namespaces, put each namespace on its own line.

namespace foo {
namespace bar {

General

void f(bool b) {  // Open braces should always have a space before them.
  ...
int i = 0;  // Semicolons usually have no space before them.
// Spaces inside braces for braced-init-list are optional.  If you use them,
// put them on both sides!
int x[] = { 0 };
int x[] = {0};

// Spaces around the colon in inheritance and initializer lists.
class Foo : public Bar {
 public:
  // For inline function implementations, put spaces between the braces
  // and the implementation itself.
  Foo(int b) : Bar(), baz_(b) {}  // No spaces inside empty braces.
  void Reset() { baz_ = 0; }  // Spaces separating braces from implementation.
  ...

Adding trailing whitespace can cause extra work for others editing the same file, when they merge, as can removing existing trailing whitespace. So: Don't introduce trailing whitespace. Remove it if you're already changing that line, or do it in a separate clean-up operation (preferably when no-one else is working on the file).

Loops and Conditionals

if (b) {          // Space after the keyword in conditions and loops.
} else {          // Spaces around else.
}
while (test) {}   // There is usually no space inside parentheses.
switch (i) {
for (int i = 0; i < 5; ++i) {
// Loops and conditions may have spaces inside parentheses, but this
// is rare.  Be consistent.
switch ( i ) {
if ( test ) {
for ( int i = 0; i < 5; ++i ) {
// For loops always have a space after the semicolon.  They may have a space
// before the semicolon, but this is rare.
for ( ; i < 5 ; ++i) {
  ...

// Range-based for loops always have a space before and after the colon.
for (auto x : counts) {
  ...
}
switch (i) {
  case 1:         // No space before colon in a switch case.
    ...
  case 2: break;  // Use a space after a colon if there's code after it.

Operators

// Assignment operators always have spaces around them.
x = 0;

// Other binary operators usually have spaces around them, but it's
// OK to remove spaces around factors.  Parentheses should have no
// internal padding.
v = w * x + y / z;
v = w*x + y/z;
v = w * (x + z);

// No spaces separating unary operators and their arguments.
x = -5;
++x;
if (x && !y)
  ...

Templates and Casts

// No spaces inside the angle brackets (< and >), before
// <, or between >( in a cast
vector<string> x;
y = static_cast<char*>(x);

// Spaces between type and pointer are OK, but be consistent.
vector<char *> x;
set<list<string>> x;        // Permitted in C++11 code.
set<list<string> > x;       // C++03 required a space in > >.

// You may optionally use symmetric spacing in < <.
set< list<string> > x;

This is more a principle than a rule: don't use blank lines when you don't have to. In particular, don't put more than one or two blank lines between functions, resist starting functions with a blank line, don't end functions with a blank line, and be discriminating with your use of blank lines inside functions.

The basic principle is: The more code that fits on one screen, the easier it is to follow and understand the control flow of the program. Of course, readability can suffer from code being too dense as well as too spread out, so use your judgement. But in general, minimize use of vertical whitespace.

Some rules of thumb to help when blank lines may be useful:

• Blank lines at the beginning or end of a function very rarely help readability.
• Blank lines inside a chain of if-else blocks may well help readability.

It is worth reiterating a few of the guidelines that you might forget if you are used to the prevalent Windows style:

• Do not use Hungarian notation (for example, naming an integer iNum). Use the Google naming conventions, including the .cc extension for source files.
• Windows defines many of its own synonyms for primitive types, such as DWORD, HANDLE, etc. It is perfectly acceptable, and encouraged, that you use these types when calling Windows API functions. Even so, keep as close as you can to the underlying C++ types. For example, use const TCHAR * instead of LPCTSTR.
• When compiling with Microsoft Visual C++, set the compiler to warning level 3 or higher, and treat all warnings as errors.
• Do not use #pragma once; instead use the standard Google include guards. The path in the include guards should be relative to the top of your project tree.
• In fact, do not use any nonstandard extensions, like #pragma and __declspec, unless you absolutely must. Using __declspec(dllimport) and __declspec(dllexport) is allowed; however, you must use them through macros such as DLLIMPORT and DLLEXPORT, so that someone can easily disable the extensions if they share the code.

However, there are just a few rules that we occasionally need to break on Windows:

• Normally we forbid the use of multiple implementation inheritance; however, it is required when using COM and some ATL/WTL classes. You may use multiple implementation inheritance to implement COM or ATL/WTL classes and interfaces.
• Although you should not use exceptions in your own code, they are used extensively in the ATL and some STLs, including the one that comes with Visual C++. When using the ATL, you should define _ATL_NO_EXCEPTIONS to disable exceptions. You should investigate whether you can also disable exceptions in your STL, but if not, it is OK to turn on exceptions in the compiler. (Note that this is only to get the STL to compile. You should still not write exception handling code yourself.)
• The usual way of working with precompiled headers is to include a header file at the top of each source file, typically with a name like StdAfx.h or precompile.h. To make your code easier to share with other projects, avoid including this file explicitly (except in precompile.cc), and use the /FI compiler option to include the file automatically.
• Resource headers, which are usually named resource.h and contain only macros, do not need to conform to these style guidelines.