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@ -83,9 +83,6 @@ See README.md for details.
+ [2.14.2 Pros](#s2.14.2-pros)
+ [2.14.3 Cons](#s2.14.3-cons)
+ [2.14.4 Decision](#s2.14.4-decision)
* [2.15 Deprecated Language Features](#s2.15-deprecated-language-features)
+ [2.15.1 Definition](#s2.15.1-definition)
+ [2.15.2 Decision](#s2.15.2-decision)
* [2.16 Lexical Scoping](#s2.16-lexical-scoping)
+ [2.16.1 Definition](#s2.16.1-definition)
+ [2.16.2 Pros](#s2.16.2-pros)
@ -128,8 +125,9 @@ See README.md for details.
+ [3.8.4 Classes](#s3.8.4-comments-in-classes)
+ [3.8.5 Block and Inline Comments](#s3.8.5-block-and-inline-comments)
+ [3.8.6 Punctuation, Spelling, and Grammar](#s3.8.6-punctuation-spelling-and-grammar)
* [3.9 Classes](#s3.9-classes)
* [3.10 Strings](#s3.10-strings)
+ [3.10.1 Logging](#s3.10.1-logging)
+ [3.10.2 Error Messages](#s3.10.2-error-messages)
* [3.11 Files and Sockets](#s3.11-files-and-sockets)
* [3.12 TODO Comments](#s3.12-todo-comments)
* [3.13 Imports formatting](#s3.13-imports-formatting)
@ -220,8 +218,8 @@ Catches easy-to-miss errors like typos, using-vars-before-assignment, etc.
#### 2.1.3 Cons
`pylint`
isn't perfect. To take advantage of it, we'll need to sometimes: a) Write around
it b) Suppress its warnings or c) Improve it.
isn't perfect. To take advantage of it, sometimes we'll need to write around it,
suppress its warnings or fix it.
<a id="s2.1.4-decision"></a>
<a id="214-decision"></a>
@ -432,8 +430,8 @@ Exceptions are allowed but must be used carefully.
<a id="exceptions-definition"></a>
#### 2.4.1 Definition
Exceptions are a means of breaking out of the normal flow of control of a code
block to handle errors or other exceptional conditions.
Exceptions are a means of breaking out of normal control flow to handle errors
or other exceptional conditions.
<a id="s2.4.2-pros"></a>
<a id="242-pros"></a>
@ -444,7 +442,7 @@ block to handle errors or other exceptional conditions.
The control flow of normal operation code is not cluttered by error-handling
code. It also allows the control flow to skip multiple frames when a certain
condition occurs, e.g., returning from N nested functions in one step instead of
having to carry-through error codes.
having to plumb error codes through.
<a id="s2.4.3-cons"></a>
<a id="243-cons"></a>
@ -629,9 +627,8 @@ Commonly used for implementing decorators.
<a id="nested-classes-functions-cons"></a>
#### 2.6.3 Cons
Instances of nested or local classes cannot be pickled. Nested functions and
classes cannot be directly tested. Nesting can make your outer function longer
and less readable.
Nested functions and classes cannot be directly tested. Nesting can make the
outer function longer and less readable.
<a id="s2.6.4-decision"></a>
<a id="264-decision"></a>
@ -789,8 +786,7 @@ means a dictionary). This is also an advantage.
Use default iterators and operators for types that support them, like lists,
dictionaries, and files. The built-in types define iterator methods, too. Prefer
these methods to methods that return lists, except that you should not mutate a
container while iterating over it. Never use Python 2 specific iteration methods
such as `dict.iter*()` unless necessary.
container while iterating over it.
```python
Yes: for key in adict: ...
@ -859,7 +855,8 @@ functions.
<a id="lambdas"></a>
### 2.10 Lambda Functions
Okay for one-liners.
Okay for one-liners. Prefer generator expressions over `map()` or `filter()`
with a `lambda`.
<a id="s2.10.1-definition"></a>
<a id="2101-definition"></a>
@ -868,8 +865,6 @@ Okay for one-liners.
#### 2.10.1 Definition
Lambdas define anonymous functions in an expression, as opposed to a statement.
They are often used to define callbacks or operators for higher-order functions
like `map()` and `filter()`.
<a id="s2.10.2-pros"></a>
<a id="2102-pros"></a>
@ -949,19 +944,21 @@ true-expression, if-expression, else-expression. Use a complete if statement
when things get more complicated.
```python
one_line = 'yes' if predicate(value) else 'no'
slightly_split = ('yes' if predicate(value)
Yes:
one_line = 'yes' if predicate(value) else 'no'
slightly_split = ('yes' if predicate(value)
else 'no, nein, nyet')
the_longest_ternary_style_that_can_be_done = (
the_longest_ternary_style_that_can_be_done = (
'yes, true, affirmative, confirmed, correct'
if predicate(value)
else 'no, false, negative, nay')
```
```python
bad_line_breaking = ('yes' if predicate(value) else
No:
bad_line_breaking = ('yes' if predicate(value) else
'no')
portion_too_long = ('yes'
portion_too_long = ('yes'
if some_long_module.some_long_predicate_function(
really_long_variable_name)
else 'no, false, negative, nay')
@ -1079,8 +1076,8 @@ future without breaking the interface.
<a id="properties-cons"></a>
#### 2.13.3 Cons
Must inherit from `object` in Python 2. Can hide side-effects much like operator
overloading. Can be confusing for subclasses.
Can hide side-effects much like operator overloading. Can be confusing for
subclasses.
<a id="s2.13.4-decision"></a>
<a id="2134-decision"></a>
@ -1089,8 +1086,8 @@ overloading. Can be confusing for subclasses.
#### 2.13.4 Decision
Use properties in new code to access or set data where you would normally have
used simple, lightweight accessor or setter methods. Properties should be
created with the `@property` [decorator](#s2.17-function-and-method-decorators).
used lightweight accessor or setter methods. Properties should be created with
the `@property` [decorator](#s2.17-function-and-method-decorators).
Inheritance with properties can be non-obvious if the property itself is not
overridden. Thus one must make sure that accessor methods are called indirectly
@ -1234,53 +1231,6 @@ Use the "implicit" false if possible, e.g., `if foo:` rather than `if foo !=
- Note that `'0'` (i.e., `0` as string) evaluates to true.
<a id="s2.15-deprecated-language-features"></a>
<a id="215-deprecated-language-features"></a>
<a id="deprecated-features"></a>
### 2.15 Deprecated Language Features
Use string methods instead of the `string` module where possible. Use function
call syntax instead of `apply`. Use list comprehensions and `for` loops instead
of `filter` and `map` when the function argument would have been an inlined
lambda anyway. Use `for` loops instead of `reduce`.
<a id="s2.15.1-definition"></a>
<a id="2151-definition"></a>
<a id="deprecated-features-definition"></a>
#### 2.15.1 Definition
Current versions of Python provide alternative constructs that people find
generally preferable.
<a id="s2.15.2-decision"></a>
<a id="2152-decision"></a>
<a id="deprecated-features-decision"></a>
#### 2.15.2 Decision
We do not use any Python version which does not support these features, so there
is no reason not to use the new styles.
```python
Yes: words = foo.split(':')
[x[1] for x in my_list if x[2] == 5]
map(math.sqrt, data) # Ok. No inlined lambda expression.
fn(*args, **kwargs)
```
```python
No: words = string.split(foo, ':')
map(lambda x: x[1], filter(lambda x: x[2] == 5, my_list))
apply(fn, args, kwargs)
```
<a id="s2.16-lexical-scoping"></a>
<a id="216-lexical-scoping"></a>
@ -1506,8 +1456,7 @@ longer but is straightforward.
Avoid these features in your code.
Standard library modules and classes that internally use these features are okay
to use (for example, `abc.ABCMeta`, `collections.namedtuple`, `dataclasses`, and
`enum`).
to use (for example, `abc.ABCMeta`, `dataclasses`, and `enum`).
<a id="s2.20-modern-python"></a>
<a id="220-modern-python"></a>
@ -2039,10 +1988,10 @@ No:
Most `.py` files do not need to start with a `#!` line. Start the main file of a
program with
`#!/usr/bin/python` with an optional single digit `2` or `3` suffix per
[PEP-394](https://www.google.com/url?sa=D&q=http://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0394/).
`#!/usr/bin/env python3` (to support virtualenvs) or `#!/usr/bin/python3` per
[PEP-394](https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0394/).
This line is used by the kernel to find the Python interpreter, but is ignored by Python when importing modules. It is only necessary on a file that will be executed directly.
This line is used by the kernel to find the Python interpreter, but is ignored by Python when importing modules. It is only necessary on a file intended to be executed directly.
<a id="s3.8-comments-and-docstrings"></a>
<a id="s3.8-comments"></a>
@ -2337,48 +2286,18 @@ using a comma when you should be using a semicolon, it is very important that
source code maintain a high level of clarity and readability. Proper
punctuation, spelling, and grammar help with that goal.
<a id="s3.9-classes"></a>
<a id="39-classes"></a>
<a id="classes"></a>
### 3.9 Classes
Classes need not explicitly inherit from `object` (unless for compatibility with
Python 2).
```python
Modern:
class SampleClass:
pass
class OuterClass:
class InnerClass:
pass
```
```python
Ancient:
class SampleClass(object):
pass
class OuterClass(object):
class InnerClass(object):
pass
```
<a id="s3.10-strings"></a>
<a id="310-strings"></a>
<a id="strings"></a>
### 3.10 Strings
Use the `format` method or the `%` operator for formatting strings, even when
the parameters are all strings. Use your best judgment to decide between `+` and
`%` (or `format`) though.
Use an
[f-string](https://docs.python.org/3/reference/lexical_analysis.html#f-strings),
the `%` operator, or the `format` method for formatting strings, even when the
parameters are all strings. Use your best judgment to decide between `+` and `%`
(or `format`) though. Do not use `%` or the `format` method for pure
concatenation.
```python
Yes: x = a + b
@ -2386,7 +2305,7 @@ Yes: x = a + b
x = '{}, {}'.format(first, second)
x = 'name: %s; score: %d' % (name, n)
x = 'name: {}; score: {}'.format(name, n)
x = f'name: {name}; score: {n}' # Python 3.6+
x = f'name: {name}; score: {n}'
```
```python
@ -2396,11 +2315,14 @@ No: x = '%s%s' % (a, b) # use + in this case
x = 'name: ' + name + '; score: ' + str(n)
```
Avoid using the `+` and `+=` operators to accumulate a string within a loop.
Since strings are immutable, this creates unnecessary temporary objects and
results in quadratic rather than linear running time. Instead, add each
substring to a list and `''.join` the list after the loop terminates (or, write
each substring to an `io.BytesIO` buffer).
Avoid using the `+` and `+=` operators to accumulate a string within a loop. In
some conditions, accumulating a string with addition can lead to quadratic
rather than linear running time. Although common accumulations of this sort may
be optimized on CPython, that is an implementation detail. The conditions under
which an optimization applies are not easy to predict and may change. Instead,
add each substring to a list and `''.join` the list after the loop terminates,
or write each substring to an `io.StringIO` buffer. These techniques
consistently have amortized-linear run time complexity.
```python
Yes: items = ['<table>']
@ -2479,6 +2401,104 @@ Don't do this.
will collapse common leading spaces in each line.""")
```
<a id="s3.10.1-logging"></a>
<a id="3101-logging"></a>
<a id="logging"></a>
<a id="logging"></a>
#### 3.10.1 Logging
For logging functions that expect a pattern-string (with %-placeholders) as
their first argument: Always call them with a string literal (not an f-string!)
as their first argument with pattern-parameters as subsequent arguments. Some
logging implementations collect the unexpanded pattern-string as a queryable
field. It also prevents spending time rendering a message that no logger is
configured to output.
```python
Yes:
import tensorflow as tf
logger = tf.get_logger()
logger.info('TensorFlow Version is: %s', tf.__version__)
```
```python
Yes:
import os
from absl import logging
logging.info('Current $PAGER is: %s', os.getenv('PAGER', default=''))
homedir = os.getenv('HOME')
if homedir is None or not os.access(homedir, os.W_OK):
logging.error('Cannot write to home directory, $HOME=%r', homedir)
```
```python
No:
import os
from absl import logging
logging.info('Current $PAGER is:')
logging.info(os.getenv('PAGER', default=''))
homedir = os.getenv('HOME')
if homedir is None or not os.access(homedir, os.W_OK):
logging.error(f'Cannot write to home directory, $HOME={homedir!r}')
```
<a id="s3.10.2-error-messages"></a>
<a id="3102-error-messages"></a>
<a id="error-messages"></a>
<a id="error-messages"></a>
#### 3.10.2 Error Messages
Error messages (such as: message strings on exceptions like `ValueError`, or
messages shown to the user) should follow three guidelines:
1. The message needs to precisely match the actual error condition.
2. Interpolated pieces need to always be clearly identifiable as such.
3. They should allow simple automated processing (e.g. grepping).
```python
Yes:
if not 0 <= p <= 1:
raise ValueError(f'Not a probability: {p!r}')
try:
os.rmdir(workdir)
except OSError as error:
logging.warning('Could not remove directory (reason: %r): %r',
error, workdir)
```
```python
No:
if p < 0 or p > 1: # PROBLEM: also false for float('nan')!
raise ValueError(f'Not a probability: {p!r}')
try:
os.rmdir(workdir)
except OSError:
# PROBLEM: Message makes an assumption that might not be true:
# Deletion might have failed for some other reason, misleading
# whoever has to debug this.
logging.warning('Directory already was deleted: %s', workdir)
try:
os.rmdir(workdir)
except OSError:
# PROBLEM: The message is harder to grep for than necessary, and
# not universally non-confusing for all possible values of `workdir`.
# Imagine someone calling a library function with such code
# using a name such as workdir = 'deleted'. The warning would read:
# "The deleted directory could not be deleted."
logging.warning('The %s directory could not be deleted.', workdir)
```
<a id="s3.11-files-and-sockets"></a>
<a id="311-files-and-sockets"></a>
<a id="files-and-sockets"></a>
@ -2758,6 +2778,9 @@ Always use a `.py` filename extension. Never use dashes.
- offensive terms
- names that needlessly include the type of the variable (for example:
`id_to_name_dict`)
<a id="s3.16.2-naming-conventions"></a>
<a id="3162-naming-convention"></a>
@ -2771,8 +2794,8 @@ Always use a `.py` filename extension. Never use dashes.
variables and functions (linters will flag protected member access). While
prepending a double underscore (`__` aka "dunder") to an instance variable
or method effectively makes the variable or method private to its class
(using name mangling) we discourage its use as it impacts readability and
testability and isn't *really* private.
(using name mangling); we discourage its use as it impacts readability and
testability, and isn't *really* private.
- Place related classes and top-level functions together in a
module.
@ -3399,8 +3422,8 @@ def f(x: "sketch.Sketch"): ...
Circular dependencies that are caused by typing are code smells. Such code is a
good candidate for refactoring. Although technically it is possible to keep
circular dependencies, the [build system](#typing-build-deps) will not let you
do so because each module has to depend on the other.
circular dependencies, various build systems will not let you do so
because each module has to depend on the other.
Replace modules that create circular dependency imports with `Any`. Set an
[alias](#typing-aliases) with a meaningful name, and use the real type name from